Critical reflection theory emerged in the field of education with Mezirow (1990) and Brookfield (1995) as a process of enquiry and it is essential to the theory of transformative learning; it was later adapted in other fields, including nursing (Papathanasiou et al, 2014; Mortari, 2015). Reflection itself is a process of analysing experiences, synthesising information and evaluating events to enhance strategies and share best practices (Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), 2019; Health and Care Professions Council, 2021; Shin et al, 2022). Cultivated through the art of learning, reflection can be nurtured and encouraged to facilitate a deep inquiry into one's inner self (Mortari, 2015).
At a university in the UK, I use reflective tools to develop my teaching skills, for example lesson evaluations and teaching observations. To illustrate this, I will use formal classroom observations as one approach to guided reflection. Classroom observations not only provide an essential role in the visibility of teaching and learning but also allow for constructive critical feedback for improvement (Future Learn, 2022). In both nursing and teaching, there is an emphasis on the need for efficient, regular reflective practice, not to identify negative aspects but to transform professional practice (Ofsted, 2018).
For the purpose of this article, I will provide a summary of my formal teaching observations and critically reflect on the themes that emerged. The themes extracted from the formal teaching observations are: motivation; the teacher's voice; the use of abbreviations and acronyms; and the use of exemplars.
Teaching observations
A teaching observation allows the observer (peer) to extract information from the observed (the teacher) and assess the student learning and educational environment.
Observations may be formal or informal. Formal teaching observations are normally scheduled in advance and information on the lesson plan and level/year of student are provided to the observer before the lesson, and feedback is provided to the observed afterwards. It is expected that the observer will offer fair and constructive feedback through a fair appraisal system and this should consist of how to enhance good practice (to support staff development needs, address student engagement and classroom environment, and improve student educational outcomes) (Compton, 2016). Peer observation and evaluation should not be seen as a draconian practices but as an aid to enhance the teaching experience and promote self-reflection to improve practice.
Formal teaching observations
The teaching observations were based on seven key domains in the university learning and teaching framework (Box 1).
Box 1.Seven key domains
- Support for active learning
- Explicit instructions
- Clear expectations
- Accessible learning materials and delivery
- Encouragement of interaction between staff and students
- Encouragement of peer interaction
- Support for different learning styles
The lesson observed was a workshop discussing a summative assessment to support the students' knowledge and application and was part of a wider module, ‘Person-centred practice in nursing’. Those allocated this module were first-year preregistration BSc nursing students. These students had attended four lessons before this workshop, which included a thorough introduction of the module and an outline of the assessment. The summative assessment consisted of a scenario-based, group-work assignment incorporating the nursing process and nursing theories. The observer was a senior lecturer in nursing and an experienced peer observer and was provided with information (on the lesson plan, level of students and summative assessment) before the observation. The lesson took place using a video conferencing platform as per the blended learning approach adopted during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Twenty-nine students (out of 35) attended. The lesson lasted 90 minutes, including time for student questions.
Below is a critical reflection of four key themes that emerged after the observed lesson was completed; these were based on the seven domains. As mentioned above, the four key themes were: motivation; the teacher's voice; the use of abbreviations and acronyms; and the use of exemplars. I have included the direct feedback from the observer for clarity.
By actively encouraging students to enquire, I felt I was motivating them to support their own learning, through empowerment (Box 2). The NMC (2023: 11) standards framework for midwifery and nursing education for approved education institutions states that students must be empowered, resilient and reflective). Likewise, the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Ireland (2023: 57) nurse registration programme standards and requirements for education bodies state nursing students must exhibit ‘awareness of self and the impact of personal values, beliefs and feelings’ as well as empowerment. Spreitzer's theory of empowerment (1995) suggests empowerment depends on competence, impact, meaning and self-determination, where an individual has the capacity to act autonomously and is capable of self-reflection.
Box 2.Motivation
| Evidence found |
| Actively encouraged students to ask questions as the session went along. She gave clear instructions. Students were asked to think about their decision-making and planning, to use learning outcomes to guide their learning. Lots of opportunities provided for students to check their understanding and to clarify aspects and to voice their opinions. She adopted a very inclusive approach – all students actively encouraged to participate, and she often referred to students being kind to each other and not feeling frustrated with fellow students in relation to forthcoming group work. |
| Strengths |
| Very clear communication. Creation of a safe place for discussion. Inclusive approach. Tailored teaching in response to individual questions. |
| Areas for improvement |
| None |
Therefore, I encourage my students to become empowered through aspects of motivation and confidence; I urge them to be proactive in their learning and, in doing so, they may gain a sense of power (Broom, 2015). It is important that I understand that, despite the invisible power struggle in the classroom between the teacher (giving instruction) and the student (taking instruction), teachers need to foster student engagement to encourage motivation through verbal praise, and provide informative and useful feedback (Cents-Boonstra et al, 2021).
Motivation
Theory tells us that motivation is key to student success, and universities should support them in their endeavours by first teaching them how to plan and organise (Hulleman et al, 2016; Lisá et al, 2023). At the beginning of a module, I emphasise to students that they must use the learning outcomes to guide their studies, and state that in doing so they will achieve the module aims and should successfully pass their assessment through careful planning. Zhang (2023) suggested effective teachers are those who provide a structured session, build rapport and take an active role in the learning process, which in turn keeps the student motivated.
A lack of student motivation can be a challenge for nurse educators and can impact retention and graduate success (Rose, 2011). This was evident in part where some students were unhappy about who they were grouped with. I have found that poor group dynamics often lead to less motivated students and subsequent delays to the progress of their group work. In contrast, I have also found that some students race ahead and do all the work themselves, despite the premise of group work. In this instance, bickering did start between one or two groups, as some students perceived a lack of contact from a particular student as being the cause of this. However, it was later found that a student had suffered a bereavement and was not in university.
Han and Yin (2016) suggested there is a distinct correlation between teacher and student motivation and factors such as teaching styles, materials and the working environment.
For the students unhappy with their groupings, I provided some clarity. I asked them to envisage being successful in their first interview for a band 5 ward nurse job. They were nervous on their first day on shift, and were grouped with seven other staff members. These employees all varied by age, sex, experience and motivations. Despite each staff member having individual strengths and weaknesses, they all had to work together to support their patients and remain professional, even if they felt there were some disadvantages to working with some colleagues. After this had been discussed, most students understood my example and were happy to approach the group work in a more pragmatic way and allow for some flexibility.
However, some students remained disgruntled. This was an eye-opener for me. Although first-year degree students' marks do not count towards their classification, some students were highly motivated to achieve top grades, and it was innate in them to want to work with the very best students who were also motivated and high achievers. It would prove difficult to satisfy those students, despite my best efforts.
Illeris (2007) identified content (understanding, knowledge and skills), incentive (motivation, emotion and volition) and interaction (action, communication and co-operation) as the three dimensions of learning (Figure 1). Illeris (2018: 8) proposed that learning involves two processes: the external interaction between the learner and the social, cultural or material environment; and the internal psychological process. For example, a teacher may elicit what they believe to be the perfect framework and content to support a student's learning but may come up against what Illeris (2007) considers an emotional interplay that can affect commitment and thus overall motivation. That interaction between the two processes and acquisition of learning must have an energy about them.
I could have perhaps allowed students to choose their own groups, but this may have created tensions within the groups, or had a negative impact on students' mental health wellbeing if they felt ostracised and not part of the wider group. Moving forward, it would be in my interest as a teacher to understand the students and the dynamics, and motivate the students to work together as best I could to avoid any future conflicts. However, it is unlikely that I will ever be able to achieve full student satisfaction when it comes to assigning group work because of human behaviours.
The lesson was presented online, following a university-wide decision to incorporate a more blended approach following COVID-19. Online education in the post-pandemic era has seen broad changes to learning and education, which have been welcomed by some students and teachers but not embraced by all because of various issues including a lack of motivation and digital poverty (Office for National Statistics, 2020; Littlejohn et al, 2021; Winter et al, 2021). The Future of Learning Report 2022 investigated post-COVID learning and the continued expansion of education technology from an international perspective (Future Learn, 2022). Data showed that older generations (32%) prefer more meaningful face-to-face learning environments whereas younger generations (33%) prefer online platforms to study, with ‘learning at a pace that suits them’ as a key driver (Future Learn, 2022: 8). Professor Lawson from Flinders university stated: ‘I sometimes talk about an “Uber-versity” model … can a university operate like a “Netflix of learning”, where … people can get their learning experiences wherever they like?’ (Future Learn, 2022: 11). Furthermore, data showed that what impels learning are: being passionate about a course (51%); the goal of a job (32%); make a difference to the world (24%); and benefiting their local community (21%) (Future Learn, 2022: 12). This may resonate with nursing students because of the nature of nursing as a vocation.
An engaged learning environment increases student motivation and encourages meaningful learning experiences. Yet there is a need for a partnership of learning and this requires both student and teacher commitment. Personalised learning is a necessity and creating inclusive learning environments are essential. However, there is a distinct difference between motivating students in online and face-to-face environments, with self-regulation an important facet in the former (Bosch and Spinath, 2023). Following the pandemic and significant changes in education systems and learning delivery, learners have new requirements and universities must adapt to these. Likewise, students must remain motivated to learn despite limitations they may encounter.
Teacher's voice
In voice projection, the voice is used clearly and distinctly. The skill of voice projection is required in teaching (Parr, 2020). As a young version of ourselves, we may remember the teacher we disliked or were frightened of because of the tone and pitch of their voice or the teacher we liked as they had a calm voice, and this may have impacted on our learning. As teachers, our voices are important, and what we convey through the spoken word is essential in supporting the learning of our students. The observer identified that I possessed a strong voice and used short sentences to convey information (Box 3).
Box 3.Teacher's voice
| Evidence found |
| Very clear communication – good strong voice, and short sentences with a good mixture of simplistic and more complex language. Excellent use of the actual marking sheet and materials from the Canvas site that were to be used for the assessment process. Linked to other learning that was relevant to the students. Key issues raised and pointed out then discussed in detail. Specifically discussed students' perceived lack of knowledge and she was able to show how this wasn't the reality and that they all had relevant experience. |
| Strengths |
| Excellent communicator. Used materials effectively with some advanced techniques – reflection and repetition used. |
| Areas for improvement |
| None |
Knowledge of the vocabulary that supports academic learning is multifaceted. Through reading and learning environments, learners accumulate a good vocabulary. However, some learners will not acquire rich language interactions because they do not read enough in general or struggle with literacy, which may lead to cognitive overload and falling behind. Therefore, teachers should assess and make sure they understand their students' language abilities before delivering learning sessions.
Bao's (2020) case study of COVID-19 and online teaching is useful as it sheds light on the difficulties in conveying the teacher's voice in a virtual classroom. The traditional instructional method of face-to-face teaching allowed the teacher to interact with students and make use of body language and the environment, whereas online teaching loses the value of facial expressions and non-verbal cues (Schneider et al, 2022), and the voice of the teacher should be emphasised. Bao (2020) suggested teachers must adapt the tone, pitch and speed of their voice to allow students to identify key learning points and digest these in a conducive way.
Furthermore, there is a distinction between synchronous and asynchronous online learning. Synchronous learning involves live instruction and teaching with an expected commitment from students in attendance and participation. Asynchronous learning allows students to view instructional materials in their own time with the benefit of flexibility. Although these differences in online sessions should not deter the student from being successful, the onus is on the student to know their limitations (Fabriz et al, 2021).
The use of pitch, tone, inflection volume and voice and conscious delivery of its content in a clear and innovative yet structured way resonates with me and I apply these in my practice. Moreover, Adnan (2018) asserted professional development is central to achieving competencies for online teaching and identified a correlation between the preparedness of teachers and satisfaction of students. Ní Shé et al (2020) in their report suggested there are stark differences in roles and competencies between traditional face-to-face and online teaching, and teachers need to adopt a strong online presence through structured facilitation and student support, as these are key to successful transaction of teaching and learning. The teacher's voice is a key ingredient in the success of online learning and must be adapted according to the learning environment and student needs.
I am aware that I sometimes change the direction of my thought processes and dialogue in response to students' facial expressions, such as those of confusion or boredom. I can change the lesson easily within synchronous learning with students visible on camera. However, if I was delivering an asynchronous lesson, then I am more likely to be less engaging in my voice projection as I do not have an audience to interact with. Therefore, my pace alternates between the two approaches, and it may be difficult for the student to follow some asynchronous online teaching.
Use of abbreviations and acronyms
The use of abbreviations and acronyms has long been a shorthand way for writing prescriptions and is prevalent in healthcare circles, yet some abbreviations have multiple meanings and can be misinterpreted (Tariq and Sharma, 2020). Bhandari and Paudi (2020) found medical students had difficulty in interpreting abbreviations that had more than one meaning. Healthcare staff often abbreviate terms vocally during handover and in written documentation, which can delay treatment for a patient or, at worst, lead to medication administration errors and therefore raise fitness to practise issues (NMC, 2018). For example, the abbreviation ED may refer to emergency department, eating disorder or erectile dysfunction; abbreviations often depend on the clinical context.
Abbreviations are common yet problematic in nursing. However, they are considered appropriate and acceptable in some circumstances; MDT is widely used by health professionals for multidisciplinary team. It could be contested in teaching professions that language acquisition be treated as a teaching competency and thus the use of abbreviations should be treated with caution to avoid alienating students and those whose first language is not English (Zerkina et al, 2015).
The observer picked up on my use of abbreviations in my teaching (Box 4). When discussing the Nursing and Midwifery Council and the importance of multidisciplinary team working, I used NMC and MDT to illustrate my points. A student stopped the lesson to ask me what those abbreviations denoted, and I quickly remembered that I was teaching first-year nursing students who had yet to go into the clinical placement area. This was a sudden insight that has remained with me; I must avoid abbreviating terms so I do not confuse the learners.
Box 4.Use of abbreviations and acronyms
| Evidence found |
| This was a major strength for her. She has the ability to articulate clear and unambiguous instructions and guidance. Logical approach – used a useful guidance sheet which was shared with the group and worked through in order. Detailed explanations given – avoided jargon except for a few nursing abbreviations. Clear expectations and responsibilities of students in their groups and as individuals given. Clear use of language – ’I don't want you to’ this is what you need to do’ you can do’ |
| Strengths |
| Good linking with the visual aid – helped the students to navigate through this document. Direct and clear instructions – demonstrating a sound knowledge base of the subject matter. You were able to keep a good command of the group and engage them throughout – this is a good skill to have. |
| Areas for improvement |
| Maybe give explanation of abbreviation when used for the first time – very minor point. |
Use of exemplars
Exemplars are used to illustrate samples of good and bad essays and improve student outcomes. I often use exemplars to support students' understanding of assessments (Box 5). Many students welcome exemplars and report that they support their understanding and guide them in preparing for their assessment. However, exemplars are not always met with positive responses. Some students report finding them difficult to use because of information overload or the fear of not having a grasp of the assessment, whereas others have been known to overuse them and reproduce content, which could potentially count as plagiarism.
Box 5.Use of exemplars
| Evidence found |
| She involved expert teachers and technicians from within the university to help with explaining the technical aspects of the assessment during the session. She also provided materials that were easy to read and clear. She made sure they were available for the students and where they could locate them. Examples were provided and discussed in detail. Evidence-based sources were looked at. |
| Strengths |
| She is able to provide thought-provoking and imaginative teaching supported by relevant materials. |
| Areas for improvement |
| In future, it might be useful to provide specific examples of the assessment – this wasn't possible in this instance as this was the first presentation (this was asked for by the students as well and responded to very well by the observed). |
When exemplars are integrated into teaching practice, they have the potential to enhance a student's ability to self-regulate performance (Hawe et al, 2021). Likewise, they may support students' understanding of complex rubrics and thus improve academic performance (Rashid-Doubell et al, 2018). I have noticed from my time as a teacher that often students do not know what a rubric is and struggle with understanding how learning outcomes are part of the assessment but, once this has been explained to them, they welcome the instruction as this guides them in attaining the learning outcomes and passing the assessment.
Newlyn (2013) stated that the current educational practice of assessment standards supports the use of essay examples to guide students in expectations of structure, content and knowledge. However, there is room for plagiarism if the issues around this are not explained, whether the plagiarism was intended or not. Kenny (2007) suggested nursing students striving for a work-life balance may feel under pressure and resort to cheating and plagiarise text in assignments. In addition, some students may not be familiar with paraphrasing techniques, citing or referencing, which leads them to unintentionally plagiarise text. Such cases of student misconduct run the risk of unprofessional practice and may be subject to academic misconduct panels or, at worst, bring the nursing profession into disrepute, through an act of dishonesty (Welsh, 2017; NMC, 2019). However, individual factors must be considered during cases of potential misconduct, which can include a limited knowledge of the importance of academic integrity, poor academic writing skills and inadequate knowledge of university policy on academic practice and behaviour (Morris, 2018). Therefore, I always discuss academic regulations at the beginning of each module I lead, or where I am a module facilitator and part of the marking team. Students are often informed of academic regulations and potential misconduct issues right at the start of their degree. However, despite being provided with all the information, students will naturally forget some of this. Zwick et al (2019) posited that if students are provided with examples and activities around direct and indirect plagiarism, this will bolster their confidence and learning, and reduce any likelihood of future acts of plagiarism.
In essence, most students welcome exemplars as a tool to guide them in their assessment and, for teachers, they possess educational value. The onus falls on teachers to make compliance guidelines explicit and the consequences of any actions that warrant at best a firm word or at worst an academic misconduct hearing. It cannot be left to students to locate university policy on academic integrity, behaviour and practices; it is for teachers to ensure a discussion of plagiarism and misconduct takes place at the beginning of each module and is repeated when assessments are being discussed. This should in turn reduce the number of plagiarism cases and academic misconduct hearings.
Conclusion
Teaching is an art and a science; it should foster innovative practices and an evidence base to support and develop students' knowledge and application, with the onus on the teacher to provide a high-quality learning experience. Formal teaching observations are vital for improving educational practice and student learning, and constructive feedback of formal teaching observations is not to be viewed as a negative experience but instead as a way to strengthen teaching practices.
Through means of reflection and evaluation of teaching practices, I acknowledge my strengths and weaknesses, and this will shape my future teaching practice. I have valued my experience of being observed, as I have since felt more confident about my teaching ability. Yes, it was anxiety provoking at the time but the value it has brought to my work is testament to the importance of teaching observations. For example, I continue to avoid the use of acronyms and abbreviations in my teaching and I think about creative ways to motivate students, using innovative and best practices.
I not only encourage my colleagues to embrace formal teaching observations to improve their teaching practice but also to view them as a vital tool to better serve our students.
KEY POINTS
- Formal teaching observations are essential to improving educational practice and student learning
- Teachers should engage and motivate students by encouraging them to take part in their own learning
- Students should be taught to plan and organise their work, beginning with understanding module aims and learning outcomes, and align these with assessments
- Teachers must adapt the tone, pitch and speed of their voice to meet student needs. The teacher's voice is a key to success in online learning
- The use of abbreviations should be treated with caution to avoid alienating students and those whose first language is not English
- To reduce the likelihood of plagiarism and support student learning, students should be given examples and activities around this
CPD reflective questions
- Think about how you can use critical reflection theory in your practice
- In what way could you foster innovative practices and evidence-based learning approaches to support your students? Would taking on the role of observer support this?
- Consider the effectiveness of using exemplars to support student learning